Read an article this past week on how quantum geometry can enable a new form of PCM (phase change memory) that is based on stacks of metallic layers (SciTech Daily article: Berry curvature memory: quantum geometry enables information storage in metallic layers), That article referred to a Nature article (Berry curvature memory through electrically driven stacking transitions) behind a paywall but I found a pre-print of it, Berry curvature memory through electrically driven stacking transitions.
The number one challenge in IT today,is that data just keeps growing. 2+ Exabytes today and much more tomorrow.
All that information takes storage, bandwidth and ultimately some form of computation to take advantage of it. While computation, bandwidth, and storage density all keep going up, at some point the energy required to read, write, transmit and compute over all these Exabytes of data will become a significant burden to the world.
PCM and other forms of NVM such as Intel’s Optane PMEM, have brought a step change in how much data can be stored close to server CPUs today. And as, Optane PMEM doesn’t require refresh, it has also reduced the energy required to store and sustain that data over DRAM. I have no doubt that density, energy consumption and performance will continue to improve for these devices over the coming years, if not decades.
In the mean time, researchers are actively pursuing different classes of material that could replace or improve on PCM with even less power, better performance and higher densities. Berry Curvature Memory is the first I’ve seen that has several significant advantages over PCM today.
Berry Curvature Memory (BCM)
I spent some time trying to gain an understanding of Berry Curvatures.. As much as I can gather it’s a quantum-mechanical geometric effect that quantifies the topological characteristics of the entanglement of electrons in a crystal. Suffice it to say, it’s something that can be measured as a elecro-magnetic field that provides phase transitions (on-off) in a metallic crystal at the topological level.
In the case of BCM, they used three to five atomically thin, mono-layers of WTe2 (Tungsten Ditelluride), a Type II Weyl semi-metal that exhibits super conductivity, high magneto-resistance, and the ability to alter interlayer sliding through the use of terahertz (Thz) radiation.
It appears that by using BCM in a memory,
The nonlinear Hall effect measurement schematics. An applied current flow along the a axis results in the generation of nonlinear Hall voltage along the b axis, proportional to the Berry curvature dipole strength at the Fermi level. b, Quadratic amplitude of nonlinear transverse voltage at 2ω as a function of longitudinal current at ω. c, d, Electric field dependent longitudinal conductance (upper figure) and nonlinear Hall signal (lower figure) in trilayer WTe2 and four-layer WTe2 respectively. Though similar butterfly-shape hysteresis in longitudinal conductance are observed, the sign of the nonlinear Hall signal was observed to be reversed in the trilayer while maintaining unchanged in the four-layer crystal. Because the nonlinear Hall signal (V⊥,2ω / (V//,ω)2 ) is proportional to Berry curvature dipole strength, it indicates the flipping of Berry curvature dipole only occurs in trilayer. e, Schematics of layer-parity selective symmetry operations effectively transforming Td,↑ to Td,↓. The interlayer sliding transition between these two ferroelectric stackings is equivalent to an inversion operation in odd layer while a mirror operation respect to the ab plane in even layer. f, g, Calculated Berry curvature Ωc distribution in 2D Brillouin zone at the Fermi level for Td,↑ and Td,↓ in trilayer and four-layer WTe2. The symmetry operation analysis and first principle calculations confirm Berry curvature and its dipole sign reversal in trilayer while invariant in four-layer, leading to the observed layer-parity selective nonlinear Hall memory behavior.
- To alter a memory cell takes “a few meV/unit cell, two orders of magnitude less than conventional bond rearrangement in phase change materials” (PCM). Which in laymen’s terms says it takes 100X less energy to change a bit than PCM.
- To alter a memory cell it uses terahertz radiation (Thz) this uses pulses of light or other electromagnetic radiation whose wavelength is on the order of picoseconds or less to change a memory cell. This is 1000X faster than other PCM that exist today.
- To construct a BCM memory cell takes between 13 and 16 atoms of W and Te2 constructed of 3 to 5 layers of atomically thin, WTe2 semi-metal.
While it’s hard to see in the figure above, the way this memory works is that the inner layer slides left to right with respect to the picture and it’s this realignment of atoms between the three or five layers that give rise to the changes in the Berry Curvature phase space or provide on-off switching.
To get from the lab to product is a long road but the fact that it has density, energy and speed advantages measured in multiple orders of magnitude certainly bode well for it’s potential to disrupt current PCM technologies.
Potential problems with BCM
Nonetheless, even though it exhibits superior performance characteritics with respect to PCM, there are a number of possible issues that could limit it’s use.
One concern (on my part) is that the inner-layer sliding may induce some sort of fatigue. Although, I’ve heard that mechanical fatigue at the atomic level is not nearly as much of a concern as one sees in (> atomic scale and) larger structures. I must assume this would induce some stress and as such, limit the (Write cycles) endurance of BCM.
Another possible concern is how to shrink size of the Thz radiation required to only write a small area of the material. Yes one memory cell can be measured bi the width of 3 atoms, but the next question is how far away do I need to place the next memory cell. The laser used in BCM focused down to ~1.5 μm. At this size it’s 1,000X bigger than the BCM memory cell width (~1.5 nm).
Yet another potential problem is that current BCM must be embedded in a continuous flow of liquid nitrogen (@80K). Unclear how much of a requirement this temperature is for BCM to function. But there are no computers nowadays that require this level of cooling.
in-situ SHG intensity evolution in Type II phase transition, driven by a pure E field sweep on a four-layer and a five-layer Td-WTe2 devices (indicated by the arrows). Both show butterfly-shape SHG intensity hysteresis responses as a signature of ferroelectric switching between upward and downward polarization phases. The intensity minima at turning points in four-layer and five-layer crystals show significant difference in magnitude, consistent with the layer dependent SHG contrast in 1T’ stacking. This suggests changes in stacking structures take place during the Type II phase transition, which may involve 1T’ stacking as the intermediate state. b, Raman spectra of both interlayer and intralayer vibrations of fully poled upward and downward polarization phases in the 5L sample, showing nearly identical characteristic phonons of polar Td crystals. c, SHG intensity of fully poled upward and downward polarization phases as a function of analyzer polarization angle, with fixed incident polarization along p direction (or b axis). Both the polarization patterns and lobe orientations of these two phases are almost the same and can be well fitted based on the second order susceptibility matrix of Pm space group (Supplementary Information Section I). These observations reveal the transition between Td,↑ and Td,↓ stacking orders is the origin of
Type II phase transition, through which the crystal orientations are preserved.
Finally, from my perspective, can such a memory can be stacked vertically, with a higher number of layers. Yes there are three to five layers of the WTe2 used in BCM but can you put another three to five layers on top of that, and then another. Although the researchers used three, four and five layer configurations, it appears that although it changed the amplitude of the Berry Curvature effect, it didn’t seem to add more states to the transition.. If we were to more layers of WTe2 would we be able to discern say 16 different states (like QLC NAND today).
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So there’s a ways to go to productize BCM. But, aside from eliminating the low-temperature requirements, everything else looks pretty doable, at least to me.
I think it would open up a whole new dimension of applications, if we had say 60TB of memory to compute with, don’t you think?
Comments?
[Updated the title from 60TB to PB to 36PB as I understood how much memory PMEM can provide today…, the Eds.]
Photo Credit(s):
- Figure 1 from Berry curvature memory through electrically driven stacking transitions paper
- Figure 4 from Berry curvature memory through electrically driven stacking transitions paper
- Figure 3 from Berry curvature memory through electrically driven stacking transitions paper
Read an article this past week (
As can be seen in the figure, the red (eraseable, implantable) and blue (conventional) wave guides are fabricated on the FPGA. The red wave guide performs the function of DC between the two conventional wave guides. The diagram shows both a single stage and a dual stage DC.
The GE ion implantable wave guides are erased by passing a laser over it and thus annealing (melting) it.
Electronic FPGAs have never gone out of favor with customers doing hardware innovation. By supplying Optical FPGAs, the techniques in the paper would allow for much more photonics innovation as well.
But an FPGA is more than just directional control over (electronic or photonic) energy. One needs to have other circuitry in place on the FPGA for it to do work.
Read an article this week in Science Daily (
Skyrmions and chiral bobbers are both considered magnetic solitons, types of magnetic structures only 10’s of nm wide, that can move around, in sort of a race track configuration.
Delay line memories
Previously, the thought was that one would encode digital data with only skyrmions and spaces. But the discovery of chiral bobbers and the fact that they can co-exist with skyrmions, means that chiral bobbers and skyrmions can be used together in a racetrack fashion to record digital data. And the fact that both can move or migrate through a material makes them ideal for racetrack storage.
Read an article the other day about the “
NVR atomristor technological properties
Surprisingly, some TMD materials exhibited the NVR effect using unipolar voltages and some using bipolar voltages, and some could use both.
The researchers went a long way to showing that the NVR was due to the atomic sheet. In one instance they specifically used non-lithographic measures to fabricate the devices. This process utilized graphene manufacturing like methods to produce an atomic sheet ontop of gold foil and depositing another gold layer ontop of that.